Accounting Theory - 6586 Words

Assignment Task The four largest Australian Banks have faced considerable pressure from the community and the government in recent times. This pressure has arisen due to their interest rate increases in association with their high reported earnings. As accountants, we are responsible for preparing financial statements and â€Å"calculating† the profit figures. In your opinion, do you think the big banks are managing their reported earnings to show lesser profits than what they are actually earning (i.e. using earnings management techniques)? You are required, and must, read and incorporate academic journal articles and other relevant materials to justify your viewpoint. INTRODUCTION Accounting can be broadly defined as the†¦show more content†¦In order to do so, it is necessary to understand and define earnings Management. Definition of Earnings Management Healy and Wahlen (1999) define earnings management as: â€Å"Earnings management occurs when managers use judgement in financial reporting and in structuring transactions to alter financial reports to either mislead some stakeholders about the underlying economic performance of the company or to influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers.† Another definition is given by Fields et al. (2001) who state that: â€Å"Earnings management occurs when managers exercise their discretion over accounting numbers with or without restrictions. Such discretion can be either firm value maximizing or opportunistic†. The above definitions highlight the point that ‘managerial intent’ is a criterion for earnings management (Spohr 2005). Several academic literatures seek to point out the activities which can be considered to be earnings management. However, as the definition of earnings management does not rely on any one item of the income statement, it does not need to be directly connected to reported earnings. Its impact is through accounting numbers and may also be directed at financial ratios as opposed to earnings (Schipper 1989). Dechow and Skinner (2000) have classified earnings management as follows: Reporting Type Accounting choices Within GAAP Conservative Accounting - Overly aggressive recognition of provisions or reserves -Show MoreRelatedPositive Accounting Theory2425 Words   |  10 PagesCompare and contrast normative and positive accounting approaches: Definition of PAT: Watts and Zimmerman (1986) defined Pat as a theory that seeks to explain and predicts particular phenomenon. It is concerned with explaining accounting practice. The three basic hypotheses as outlined by Watts and Zimmerman (1978) underlying PAT are: 1. Bonus plan hypothesis: The bonus plan hypothesis is that managers of firms with bonus plans are more likely to use accounting methods that increase current period reportedRead MoreAccounting Theory And Management Accounting2580 Words   |  11 PagesThough forms of managerial accounting practices can be traced back decades, centuries even, management accounting used to be regarded as a financial tool, advantageous for the financial managers. However, over the past three decades views on management accounting have changed. As Kaplan (1994) states management accounting theory has experienced a revolution in both theory and practice with the development of new innovations. Through advances in information technology, more competitive markets andRead MorePositive Accounting Theory Essay1195 Words   |  5 PagesWhittington notes, they are two of the most widely discussed contributors to the accounting literature of the past decade (1989, p. 327). They are also the joint founder-editors of The Journal of Accou nting and Economics, a journal devoted to positive accounting research, which has achieved an international reputation. So their story, while admittedly controversial, has achieved credibility among a significant number of accounting researchers. But what accounts for that credibility? According to WattsRead MoreThe Theory Of Accounting Fraud3500 Words   |  14 PagesA number of cases of fraudulent accounting have been reported over the last fifty years. However, in each case the manner in which the fraud was perpetrated was different In the UK there is no legal definition of fraud (Levi, Information Gathering Working Party and Doig, 1999). Black’s Law Dictionary (1999) defines fraud as â€Å"a knowing misrepresentation of the truth or concealment of a material fact†. When we apply this to the world of accountancy there can be confusion between fraud and ‘creativeRead MoreAccounting Theory- Stakeholders1220 Words   |  5 PagesCurrent Issues in Accounting, South Melbourne: Cengage Learning Freeman RE. 1984. Strategic Management: a Stakeholder Approach. Pitman: Boston, MA Haigh, N., amp; Griffiths, A. (2009). The natural environment as a primary stakeholder: The case of climate change.  Business Strategy and the Environment,  18(6), 347. Retrieved from: http://ezproxy.waikato.ac.nz/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/213770085?accountid=1728 Mitchell RK, Agle BR, Wood DJ. 1997. Toward a theory of stakeholder identificationRead MoreAccounting Theory and Practice Essay2225 Words   |  9 Pagesreached about what perspective theories should be used to explain the Social and Environmental Accounting, and moreover critique voices are from the works of Marx or by the deep-green or feminist literatures (Deegan, 2002), to some extent, systems-oriented theory and Positive Accounting Theory can list some hints. This essay will seek to explain the reasons why firms voluntary disclosure information by referring to Legitimacy theory, Stakeholder theory, institutional theory, and lastly Political CostsRead MoreA Research On Positive Accounting Theory2273 Words   |  10 Pagespositive accounting hypothesis (PAT) estimates that, in flawed markets, accounting decision may be controlled by directors looking to impact reported income and capital structure (Watts and Zimmerman, 1978). Specifically, the positive accounting hypothesis (PAT) contends that accounting decisions are liable to be spurred by components, for example, supervisors extra arranges, the company s obligation/value proportions and the more extensive political impact of outsiders (Watts and Zimmerman, 1978;Read MorePositive vs Normative Accounting Theory Essay1032 Words   |  5 Pageswith planning) TOPIC: Discuss positive accounting theory and contrast it with normative accounting theory. Provide examples where appropriate.       The purpose of this essay is to provide an overview of positive accounting theory (PAT) and highlight how this theory differs to normative accounting theory. Definitions and assumptions of both theories will be considered and examples of the theories will be provided. In addition specific theories related to PAT namely agency and the efficientRead MoreThe Imporance of Accounting Theory to the Field of Accounting1912 Words   |  8 PagesThe Importance of Accounting Theory to the Field Of Accounting The objective of theory is to explain and predict. One of the basic goals of the theory of a particular discipline is to have a well-defined body of knowledge that has been systematically accumulated, organized, and verified well enough to provide a frame of reference for future actions. The Webster’s definition of theory is the systematically organized knowledge, applicable in a relatively wide variety of circumstances, a systemRead Moreaccounting theory Essay1980 Words   |  8 Pagesï » ¿3101AFE Accounting Theory and Practice Tutorial Questions for Tutorials 1- 6: Semester 2 2014 TUTORIAL 1 - Semester 2 2014 Deegan Topic 1: Introduction to financial accounting theory QUESTION 1 - Question 1.8: What is the difference between developing a theory by induction and developing a theory by deduction? QUESTION 2 - Question 1.9: Is the study of financial accounting theory a waste of time for accounting students? Explain your answer. QUESTION 3 - Question 1.26: Would you

The Life and Works of William Shakespeare - 2100 Words

William Shakespeare was born the third child and the first son of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden. It is estimated that he was born on April 22 or 23 of 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon and he died on April 23 of 1616. For that reason it is typically said that his birthday was also on April 23(Lee 8). He married Anne Hathaway and they had three children. William Shakespeare was a man of many talents who wrote numerous pieces in his lifetime. He wrote comedies, histories, tragedies, and romances. Shakespeare also wrote both plays and poems. From 1601-1608, many of Shakespeare’s plays showed â€Å"Jacobean characteristics†¦Ã¢â‚¬ meaning that the â€Å"comedies were few in number and lack joyous affirmation(Bevington 63).† Many of his first pieces showed his background of â€Å"classical reading(Bevington 48).† Robert Greene made an attack on Shakespeare, also being the first allusion to him, in one of his works saying that Shakespeare was â€Å"a Jack-of-all-tra des-actor, playwright, poet, and theatrical handyman in the directing and producing of plays(Bevington 50).† Though this was an attack on Shakespeare, it does show just how many different things that he did in his lifetime. Shakespeare had a style that was all his own. He had similarities in his work to other works of the same time period but still his are different also. Shakespeare is still well known today and even after almost four millennia since his death, his works are still taught in many schools. Shakespeare is best known for his plays.Show MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare s Life And Work Transcends Time1092 Words   |  5 Pagesof their literary work. During the Elizabethan time period, William Shakespeare began his remarkable career as a playwright changing/impacting blank. William Shakespeare’s life and work transcends time because of their relative relatability. William Shakespeare’s childhood was privileged in some ways. In â€Å"William Shakespeare; Life of Drama,† a documentary produced by by Rod Caird, Shakespeare was christened on April 26th in the year 1564. According to the website â€Å"Shakespeare of Stratford† publishedRead MoreBiography of William Shakespeare1709 Words   |  7 PagesWilliam Shakespeare: Real or Fake? Introduction Who is the real Shakespeare? There are those who insist that William Shakespeare is the author of the many works attributed to him and reports state that there are those who believe some type of conspiracy exists to protect the real name of the author of those works. Claims state that there is no evidence to document William Shakespeare of Stratford as the author and that he did not have the aristocratic background, education, or knowledge to haveRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s A Good And Lasting Legacy822 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare William Shakespeare left a good, lasting legacy that we see almost every day and we don t even know it s there. A legacy is something that you leave behind weather good or bad, Shakespeare s left a legacy of books and being thought as one of the greatest writers in the world. In William’s life he created many pieces of literature and words that people use everywhere today. We may not know a whole lot about William Shakespeare’s life but we can see that he was a veryRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet1733 Words   |  7 PagesShakespeare is a figure shrouded in mystery. In this paper, the title of â€Å"Shakespeare† will refer to the author of the works currently credited to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon. Shakespeare is undoubtedly one of the most famous writers of all time. He created masterpieces like Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and several more. For a long period of time, William Shakespeare from Stratford-upon-Avon was c onsidered the author of all the works credited to Shakespeare. For over a centuryRead MoreDelving into the Personality of Shakespeare in â€Å"What Was He Really Like? by Stanley Wells653 Words   |  3 Pagesbiographies written about William Shakespeare attempt to explain his life chronologically from birth to death. These accounts aim to describe his life through discussing his works and accomplishments. The problem with this pattern is that there are only so many ways humans can rewrite the same facts about the same person. Contrary to most papers about Shakespeare, the essay titled â€Å"What Was He Really Like?†, written by Stanley Wells, focuses internally on who Shakespeare was as an ordinary personRead Moreâ€Å"To Be, Or Not To Be: That Is The Question:† (Shakespeare,935 Words   |  4 Pagesthat is the question:† (Shakespeare, Hamlet 3.1.56). This is a famous quote from William Shakespeare’s famous play Hamlet. However, what inspired Shakespeare to write such a play? What inspired Shakespeare to create any of his famous works? These questions can only be answered by looking into Shakespeare’s life and the events that came to pass when he wrote his plays. Therefore William Shakespeare wrote many of his plays derived from inspiration that came from events in his life whether they were tragicRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare Biography Essay1691 Words   |  7 Pageswas Shakespeare Biography? Who was William Shakespeare? Where was he born? Where did he go to school? How did William Shakespeare live his life from the beginning to the ending? William Shakespeare’s life became a great mystery with lack of evidence to support any findings. His schooling, his family and parents will be revealed in my paper. Who were William Shakespeare’s parents? The parents of Mr. Shakespeare were John Shakespeare and Mary Arden Shakespeare. Mary Arden married William ShakespeareRead MoreEssay about William Shakespeares Life in London763 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare spent the later years of his life in London, England. This part of his life deserves to be noted, because of his outstanding accomplishments towards society. A big part of Shakespeare’s accomplishments derive in the city of London. William Shakespeare’s life in London consisted of the lost years, involvements with the Globe Theater, creations of brilliant Early works, articulate writing styles that catch the eye, and controversies about whether Shakespeare was educated enoughRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Life And Life1307 Words   |  6 Pages William Shakespeare s life was very interesting, to say the least about him. â€Å"An English playwright and poet, William Shakespeare is often considered the gre atest dramatist the world has ever known and the most recognized poet in the English language† (Lindaman). From a very young age, William was a very bright kid, who had gained a love for theater. Ever since that love as a kid, it only grew stronger. Not only did he have a love for theater, but also poetry. Throughout Shakespeare’s life familyRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare: Analysis of the Famous Playwright Essay1026 Words   |  5 Pagesplaywright, William Shakespeare, reveals the struggles he overcame and activities he did during his childhood, as a playwright, his involvement with the Globe theatre after moving to England, and during the time of his death, along with some interesting and concerning facts about him. William Shakespeare lived a normal childhood along with his parents and siblings. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon on April 23, 1564 as the third of eight Shakespeare children. Shakespeare and his siblings

Development and Environmental Economics.

Question: Discuss about the Development and Environmental Economics.. Answer: Introduction: One of the key historical models of economic growth is the model given by Walt Whitman Rostow in the year 1960, who was an American economist and came to be known as the Rostows Stages of Economic Growth (Tangherlini Yea, 2008). This model proposes that the economic growth takes place in five basic stages, which are varied in lengths. These five stages are the traditional society, the preconditions for take-off, the take off, the drive to maturity and the age of high mass consumption (Rostow, 1960). This model became one of the key concepts towards the theory of modernization in the social evolutionism. However, this theory has been criticized for being historical and mechanical (Rist, 2008). In the following parts, this theory has been critically analyzed and its various aspects have been thoroughly elucidated. The model given by Rostow is more of structuralist models pertaining to the economic growth, especially when compared to the backwardness model, which had been formulated by Alexander Gerschenkron, even when these models are not mutually exclusive. It was argued by Rostow that the economic take-off initially should be led by only a handful of individual economic sectors. The comparative advantage thesis, by David Ricardo echoed this belief and the push for economic self-reliance by the Marxist revolutionaries were criticized on the basis that it pushed for the early development of merely one-two sectors in comparison to an equal development of all the sectors (Deji, 2012). The analysis of Rostow of the economic growth has had a mixed reaction. On one hand, the treatment of growth by Rostow has been highly applauded, whilst on the other, this very analysis covered in the piece of economic literature, same has been sternly criticized (Seers, 1963). The historical approach taken by Rostow towards the economic development has been a subject of criticism on various grounds. The first and foremost being, that the traditional society is not requisite for a development. There are a range of countries, for instance Australia, New Zealand, Canada and United States, which had their inception free from the conventional based societies and in addition to this, these nations derived the pre-condition from the United Kingdom, which was an already advanced nation. Hence, it is not necessary that a nation has to pass through the initial stage for its growth (Onyeka, 2015). The pr-conditions are not necessarily required to pave the way for the take-off. The only things which are required to precede the take-off are the accumulation of the SOC (social overhead capital) in transport and the agricultural revolution (Gupta, 2009). The experiences of the majority of nations show that the agricultural development continues to take place even in the take-off stage. The next point of critique is the over-lapping of the diverse phases. Rostow has stated that there are various different stages for economic growth, but these are not mutually exclusive, furthermore, these can easily overlap each other. The features of the initial phases are often found mixed up with the features of the latter phases. A later phase could easily have some residue of an earlier stage. So, the process of splitting up the economic development in different stages or phases is a subject which has serious limitations (Hoen, 2010). There is also a difficulty in dividing the growth process in diverse phases or stages. The majority of the growth economists refrain from agreeing to the probability of a division of history in particular stages of development. They believe that such stages are not inevitable as are death and birth; in addition to this, the stages do not follow a sequential base like that of old age, maturity, adolescent, childhood and infant. It was observed by Professor Meyer regarding this matter that each economy, with a common past, as well as the same future, follows the same course of development, so as to over schematize the multifarious development forces, in addition to giving the sequential stages a commonality which is unnecessary (Brass, 2014). It remains unwarranted that each economy ought to follow the similar development sequence. It is quite possible that a nation would reach the last stages even without having to pass through the initial stages. Hence, the stages can easily be skipp ed over (Sanderson, 2013). The take-off stage has also received its fair-share of criticism. This is the stage which has been most widely discussed for being the controversial stage. As per Professor A.K. Cairncross, this stage has hit the minds of the public in the most impactful manner and has struck most forcibly. This is undoubtedly because of the aeronautical metaphor-prolonged in the phrase into the self-sustained growth, which proposes immediately an effortless, as well as, a conclusive congenial to the modern thought. The economists and the histories have reacted to it in a less favorable manner. These individuals have developed familiarity towards the emphasis on the continuity towards the historical changes, the trace back to an earlier era where the forces produced a social explosion, as well as, towards providing an explanation regarding the perceptible jumps in the economic development (Gupta, 2009). The dates stated for the take-off are doubtful (Fernando, 2011). As per Professor Higgins, the historians of economics were skeptical regarding the take-off dates which were recommended by Rostow. These dates are also varied based on the publication time period. In 1937, the takeoff into self-sustained growth was provided, though in the later publications, it states that it had been given in 1952 (Gupta, 2009). The fact of the matter here is that it would take a number of years for the researchers to make a determination regarding the aptness of the dates, which were by Rostow. Moreover, the possibility of any failure has been clearly avoided. In the views of Habakuk, in the aeronautical concept of growth, Rostow had completely moved passed the crash landings and the bump downs. Also, the analysis of the take-offs blatantly neglects the effects of the historical heritage, the degree of backwardness, the time of entry to the process of contemporary economic growth, in addition to the other relevant factors regarding the features of the initial stages of the contemporary economic growth in the varied nations (Economics Discussion, 2017). There have been critics who have pointed towards the productive investment rate becoming higher, i.e., over 10% of the national income, which is arbitrary. In this regard, Professor A.K. Das Gupta had questioned the sanctity regarding this specific percentage (Gupta, 2009). He stated that with 10% annual saving, it can be expected that an economy would acquire a higher trend in the per capita income, until the rate of population growth, as well as, the capital output ratio becomes peculiarly high. So, any demarcation along with these lines is arbitrary (Persaud, 2017). Also, there is not a single historical date which would validate the sharp rise in the saving income ratio at the starting of industrialization. Professor Rostow had made an emphasis towards the handful of leading sectors, including roads, textile, rail etc (Gale, 2008). Though, the economic growth has not necessarily been continuously administered by the development of the handful of such leading sectors solely. The utility of this idea was questioned by Professor Cairncross, towards helping in understanding the take-off. He has put forward questions regarding the connection amid the initial and the later stages. Along with this, he has questioned regarding the need of the leading sectors to be in the manufacturing. He put forward the question that if the railway building can qualify in this regard then why the retail distribution of agriculture was prohibited (Rostow Baker, 2016). Another criticism relates to the negligible difference between the 1st and the 3rd condition. The last stipulation for the take-off relates to the existence of materialization of a cultural structure which provides an outgoing character to growth (Offiler, 2015). The important stipulation for this relates to the capability to muster up the capital from domestic resources and this is just restatement of the initial stipulation of take-off. In the opinion of Professor Cairncross, even the definition of such terms fails in telling anything regarding the factors which are at work here, as one can construe only their existence from the fact of take-off and the possibility from the established reality of their subsistence can never be deduced. The scholars have also raised the issue regarding the empirical coverage in the analysis of Rostow, of being inadequate, as well as being narrow. The data analyzed by him relates to a number of nations during the past century (Kempchen, 2015). The ma jor statics for the nations have been, till now, highly unreliable. So, any generalization which is based on such a narrow statistical base cannot be held to be very reliable. The concept of self-sustained growth is also a source of criticism, as this is very misleading. As per Professor Kuznets, a growth is not purely self-limiting or self sustaining. The economic growth is a struggle and to call it self-sustained or self-generating at any stage would be both wrong, as well as, misleading. Some scholars have also gone forward to state that Rostow was a false prophet. Any proposal is welcomed in the history of ideas, which could help in understanding the past, as well as, ease up the building of a promising future. The attempts made by Rostow have not succeeded in any direction. This point of view has been put forward by H.J. Habakuk. He has opined that there is no conformity of the experience of the European nations to the pattern of growth presented by Rostow. Even the economic development of the under developed nations do not lend any credit to the pattern of growth given by Rostow. So, the analysis of Rostow is not based on the sound reasonings (Gupta, 2009). Rostow was not successfully in providing a base for separating distinctly one stage of from the other one. It also becomes difficult in ascertaining where and when a specific stage initiates and the other one ends. This is the prima facie case, according to Kuznets, for expecting the overlapping of the preconditions and the take-off stage (Mukherjee Chakrabarti, 2016). As per Professor Meir, the stage of analysis given by Rostow is not applicable over all the nations. In fact, some of the nations may jump some specific stages during the growth process of such stages. There is also an uncertainty in the historical models of economic growth (Wallerstein, Rojas Lemert, 2015). Also, it has not been stated regarding what would happen after the fifth stage of growth, as it is beyond the canvas of growth analysis given by Rostow. Another criticism in this regards is that the stage of drive to maturity is very puzzling (Somashekar, 2007). It contains the features of take-off in form of the rate of net investment being over 10% of the national income, the development of leading institutions, sectors and new production techniques. This begs the question for the requirement for a distinct stage where the procedure of growth becomes totally self-sustainable. In actuality, it can easily be self-sustained at the stage of take-off. As has been earlier stated that it has been observed by Kuznets that none of the growths can be either purely self-limiting or self-sustaining (Gupta, 2009). The categorization of a single growth stage is self sustained by implications and also of others, as it lacks that property and requires substantive evidence, as well as, the analysis, which Rostow has failed in providing. There is no chronological sequence to the stage of high mass consumption. The manner in which the age of high mas s consumption has been defined is such that some of nations, for instance, Canada or Australia, have had entreated this stage, even before they could attain their maturity. As per the critics, the period of mass consumption is merely the same thing, minus the ideological overtone. One more objection which has been raised against the mass consumption is that there has been undue emphasis over the social welfare, consumption and over the national power (Economics Discussion, 2017). There have been critics who have presented the view that this theory is completely a response of the American scholars to the post World War II period context (Ogot, 2005). This model has made it amply clear that the inherent purpose of the Rostows modernization theory is towards the shaping of development of only the emerging nations belonging to the western colonies and descending them towards the capitalist block. Hence, this theory was developed in the context which is specifically suited to only that culture, and is not necessarily appropriate for the others. This very contextual emergence of the modernization theory has been the inception points to all the uncertainties and reservations towards the objectivity of this approach. For instance, the theory has said to be an ethnocentric one. This becomes apparent when the leading proponents, i.e., Eisenstadt, of this theory explain the modernization process as one of societal change towards the western model of development (Hennaya ke, 2006). The Rostow model of variables, in addition to the other theorists of modernization, suggest that the westernization for the non-western nations modernization. So, the ethnocentric interpretation excludes the contributions from the developing worlds thinkers. It can also be stated that this is a model based on one size fits all, and fails on being culture specific (Revise Sociology, 2015). So, theory of modernization given by Rostow presumes that all the nations are initiated with the same base foundations, for instance, the structure, population size, climate, and natural resources. It does make an emphasis on being based on European nations, but deliberately fails to include the growth of the developing nations, which were colonized. An interesting point has been applied in context of a developing nation like South Africa to the theory of Rostow. This point relates to the nation that the economic growth is driven by a larger procedure of absorbing the technologies, the attitudes, government regulations and the policies, which play a crucial role in the economic growth of the heterogeneous society (Hilsenrth, 1993). The modernization theory also makes an assumption that the nations require the assistance of outside forces. This theory believes that the central role is on the money and the experts, which come from outside of the nation or are parachuted in, and this is downgrading the entire role of the initiatives, as well as, the knowledge of the locals. So, it is an approach which is dehumanizing, and demeaning for the local population. It has also been argued that the minds become colonized with the notion of their dependency on the outside forces (Kingsbury, McKay Hunt, 2012). This theory also ignores the crisis of modern time, in the developing, as well as, developed nations. So the issues like drug abuse, health issues, suicide rates and high crime rates have been altogether ignored. There are huge inequalities in a number of developed nations, and with a higher level of inequality, comes the higher degree of problems. There is also the factor of corruption, which prevents assistance of any sort of doing well. Also, the majority of the assistance provided is siphoned away by the government officials, as well as, the corrupt elites, instead of getting to the projects for which they had been earmarked. Hence, the assistance can said to create more inequality and it also makes possible for the elites to maintain their power (Revise Sociology, 2015). There is also the limitation of ecological basis towards any growth. So a number of modernization projects, for instance forestry or mining, lead to the degradation and devastation of environment. There is also the social damage caused due to this. Some of the development projects, for instance, of dams, have resulted in the removal of the local population in a forcible manner from their very own homelands, with no or negligible payment of compensation. It has also been argued by some of the Marxist theorists that the assistance, as well as, the development has not at all helped in the development of the world. In reality, it is about changing the society, in just enough manner, so as to make the exploitation of them easier, in a way to make the western nations, as well as, the western companies richer, by introducing them to exploit both the cheap labor, in addition to the cheap natural resources. It has been thoroughly noted by Joseph Stiglitz that the nations which ignored the wes tern advice and followed the alternative models of development, now have the capability of competing with the west and the prime example of this are India and China (Revise Sociology, 2015). To sum up the entire discussion, the theory of modernization put forward by Rostow has been thoroughly applauded and even been stated as the most influential models in the economic growth. However, at the same time, it has been criticized on a number of grounds, whether for being too mechanical or historical or being based on European and American history and ignoring the developing nations in process. The above parts covered the detailed criticism of each and every stage of this model and highlighted conclusively, the shortfalls of this theory. References Brass, T. (2014). Class, Culture and the Agrarian Myth. Boston: BRILL. Deji, O.F. (2012). Gender and Rural Development: Advanced studies. Berlin: LIT Verlag Mnster. Economics Discussion. (2017). Rostows Stage of Economic Growth (Criticism). Retrieved from: https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/economic-growth/rostows-stage-of-economic-growth-criticism/4574 Fernando, A.C. (2011). Business Environment. Chennai: Pearson. Gale, T. (2008). Stages of Economic Growth. Retrieved from: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/stages-economic-growth Gupta, K.R. (2009). Economics of Development and Planning, Volume 1I (4th ed.). New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. Hennayake, N. (2006). Culture, Politics, and Development in Postcolonial Sri Lanka. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Lexington Books. Hilsenrath, P.E (1993) Stages of growth revisited. Development Southern Africa, 10(1), 101-110. Doi: 10.1080/03768359308439670 Hoen, H.H. (2010). Dovetailing economics and political science. The Netherlands: Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. Kempchen, L. (2015). Traditional motives for development cooperation. An evaluation of Chinese development politics. Norderstedt: GRIN Verlag. Kingsbury, D., McKay, J., Hunt, J. (2012). International Development: Issues and Challenges (2nd ed.). New Yoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Mukherjee, A., Chakrabarti, S. (2016). Development Economics: A Critical Perspective. Delhi: PHI Learning. Offiler, B. (2015). US Foreign Policy and the Modernization of Iran: Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and the Shah. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Ogot, B.A. (2005). History as Destiny and History as Knowledge:Being Reflections on the Problems of Historicity and Historiography. Kenya: Anyange Press. Onyeka, O. (2015). Critical Analysis of Rostow's Model of Development. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/11317934/Critical_Analysis_of_Rostows_Model_of_Development Persaud, M. (2017). Who was Walt Whitman Rostow?. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/8115922/PART_A_Explain_the_main_concepts_of_Rostows_Stages_of_Growth Revise Sociology. (2015). Modernisation Theory (Development and Underdevelopment). Retrieved from: https://revisesociology.com/2015/09/27/modernisation-theory-development-and-underdevelopment/ Rist, G. (2008). History of Development (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Academic Foundation. Rostow, W. W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. Rostow, W., Baker, R. (2016). The Economics of Take-Off into Sustained Growth. Berlin: Springer. Sanderson, S.K. (2013). Sociological Worlds: Comparative and Historical Readings on Society. London: Routledge. Seers, D. (1963). The Limitations of the Special Case. In Meier, G.M. (ed.) Leading Issues in Economic Development (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Somashekar, N.T. (2007). Development and Environmental Economics. Guwahati: New Age International. Tangherlini, T.R., Yea, S. (2008). Sitings: Critical Approaches to Korean Geography. USA: University of Hawaii Press. Wallerstein, I., Carlos Aguirre Rojas, C.A., Lemert, C.C. (2015). Uncertain Worlds: World-systems Analysis in Changing Times. Oxon: Routledge.

Web Design for Selling Self

Introduction This is a report about a Web site design for selling self-published books. The site provides various books in various aspects of healthy living. Users can download the e-book at a fee.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Web Design for Selling Self-Published Books specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many writers have resorted to self-publishing and there is a growing demand for an online business to sell such books. Selling digital books on the Web site has become profitable because of the large market throughout the world and a lack of physical inventory. The owner also has an option of conducting the business from any part of the world with the Internet connection. The e-books shall be useful to users and affect their living habits. Goal Definition The aim of this project is to create a Web site for selling self-published books that will attract younger generations who have interests in various topic s about. The Web site should have more than 500 visitors in a month. Requirements The need to sale self-published books has increased with the development and accessibility of the Internet technologies. The Web site shall use effective payment options that are available in various parts of the world than what other businesses offer. The Web site shall have the following requirements in order to ensure professional services to visitors and users (Eccher 30).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The visitor can start by browsing the available e-books on the subject of interest. The site may also suggest other books of interest for the visitor. Visitors who are members of the Web site can log in their accounts by using their user name and password. New users can register new accounts at the Web site at no cost. However, users who wish not to register may explore the available e -books, but they cannot purchase any item from the site. Users who have logged into their accounts can place their orders by specifying the required e-books, the number of copies needed and other important details, and then adding them to the cart. The system shall verify order details and provide the customer with the amount to pay for the items. In case of any challenge, the system instructs the user to change some of the details. The customer may repeat the process until no more challenges can be noticed. The system shall also verify that the customer has placed the right order, check the quality of the e-book. The customer will also specify the format of the e-book and the type of file (such as PDF, html, rtf,.doc etc). The customer may then execute the payment of the items by entering the appropriate payment details. The system shall support different options lack credit cards, VISA, PayPal, and other e-pay solutions. Prices of all items shall be in the US dollar equivalent. Th e system must verify all payment details and establish the user’s identity in order to protect customers. Once the customer has executed the payment, he or she will receive a confirmation message through notification border in the account, personal e-mail, and phone number. In addition, the system sends the message to the department to effect the transaction.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Web Design for Selling Self-Published Books specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More After this process, the system then sends the e-book to the customer provided e-mail for download or the customer can get the e-book in the account he or she opened with the company. Before the transaction is complete, users also have a chance to terminate the transaction. Visitor The system shall also provide opportunities for customers to provide their feedback and suggestions on how to improve services, the Web site, and any other area of interest to them. Fig. 1: Use case diagram The use case diagram represents the stages of making the online e-book transactions. It shows the scope of the Web site, functional areas, and possible interactions between the visitors and the Web site (Ambler 1). The major players in these processes are: Customer: the customer or the visitor is the major player in this process. The company provides opportunities for a customer in another location to purchase the book via the online method. Administrator: the administrator can control the entire process of the customer’s interaction with the system. He also takes the role of the system operator and supports the entire process involved in e-book purchase. The administrator verifies all the details and interacts with the customer during the purchase process.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Database server: the database server stores the members’ identities and other details. It is also important during the registration of a new member. Web server: the Web server contains details of e-books, costs, shopping cart, address, comment areas, rating, e-mail addresses, and other important aspects of the Web site. Users initiate the process by logging on to the system. On the other hand, new visitors can register and become a member. The customer can browse the available books, review their contents, and choose the suitable book. In addition, the customer can review the book, rate, and add his or her comments. The customer selects the e-book of interest and adds it to the cart. In case of any challenge, the customer can make changes to the order. He can see costs of the item, which the system sends to the administrator. The customer can then initiate payment by using any of the supported methods. After verification procedures and payment, the administrator can confirm t he payment and send the e-book to the customer. The customer may get the book in his account with the company or in his personal e-mail account. Fig. 2: Online e-book purchasing processes Site Plan Logical Structure The logical structure has assumed a simple form structure (Booch, Rumbaugh and Jacobson 82). However, this structure may change as the design may acquire new features. The site hierarchy has the entire common navigational links. In addition, topical links are also a part of the structure. However, the site avoids complex design to enhance usability and navigation. Visitors can navigate the site freely and move from one content to another. For instance, users can skip ‘About Us’ and transcend to ‘Product’ without passing through other areas. The site plan is clear, simple, and concrete. Thus, it is simple for visitors to navigate from one menu to another without experiences challenges of being lost. Design Prototype The design is interactive to allow the Web site to communicate the entire structure, contents, and functionality with other part is a manner provides ease of modification, usage, and merging without technical challenges. This model shows clickable elements of HTML sections, which users can navigate while in the site. The design shall also have the necessary feel, images, and typography that match an e-book Web site. The page has footer and header. At the Home page, there are also options for Register for new visitors or Member Log for existing users. At the Footer, there are buttons with links about Contact Us, Social media connection, Pricing, Help, and FAQ. The Contact Us link leads the customer to the company’s e-mail address and phone number and physical location. Users have the option of using any of the methods. Under the Pricing tab, customer can view each item with its price tag. In case a customer has challenges, there is a link for help of FAQs. Whenever the user clicks on the Register button, the registration page shall pop up with all the fields for personal detail requirements and other related information. The process is linear to allow users to follow a simple process of registration. Users must enter their last names, first names, e-mail address, zip (if applicable), phone number, physical address, and country. The user must then enter the password and confirm it by retyping the same password. In case of any error, the system will highlight the section with the problem, and the users can make the required changes. After this process, users can then click the button ‘finish registration’. It will show that the registration is successful, and the system automatically directs the new user to member’s page. However, users can also cancel their registration by clicking the registration button. The Login page leads the user to where they can enter their user e-mail addresses and password in order to gain access to their account and member’s pag e. Users have the option of ‘remember my log in details’, which they can confirm or reject. The system also has a Log out button for users who have completed their transactions. Once in the member’s area or in the account section, users can browse the available list of e-books, reviews, and ratings. User can also add comments and rate a book. They can choose a book of their interests and review its content before making a decision to purchase. Users can click on the remove button to remove an item from a list, or they can click on the cancel button to abandon the entire process. The customer can make the order and specify the quantity. All items have their price tags. The system has automatic total price calculation, which the customer can see at the bottom of the list. The payment button allows the customer to enter his or her payment information based on the preferred method. They can also cancel the transaction at this stage. The price list and total price are visible to the customer. The payment process requires the necessary customer’s information. A customer can choose to pay by card or use online payment solutions. In the case of online payment, the customer will just enter the e-mail address and link to the payment account. He will then confirm the required fields and verify information entered. The card option shall require the name, card number, and date of expiry. The process must undergo all security verification procedures before the customer can execute payment. The customer can then click the ‘confirmation’ and ‘submit button’ in order to execute the transaction. They can also cancel the order at this stage. The system automatically generates transaction details and sends to the customer activity section, personal e-mail, and specified mobile number. In addition, the notification and confirmation message also appears on the screen. Site Implementation After the prototype stage, the designer mu st now implement the site. In this phase, the designer only dealt with three phases. The first phase involves the implementation of the site structure design. The aim is to ensure that the designer distributed all contents of the prototype in a way that is user-friendly and logical. The designer had various users’ behaviors in mind and used WSDM (Web search and data mining) as the guiding principle in the process. However, the designer also recognized that he could not foresee future behaviors of the users. Therefore, the decision was on a speculative approach. Whereas the designer could measure other technical aspects like financial, time, and technical challenges, he could not measure users’ behaviors when using the site. The second phase involved the presentation of the design of the Web site. The aim was to create a favorable feel and look of the site. In this process, the designer used a layout that accounted for users’ characteristics and mission of the co mpany. The designer used templates in order to reduce several cases of testing, create a consistent design, and enhance the speed of the process. The approach allowed the designer to use automated codes and other graphic parts. The use of the templates also ensured that the Web site had a good layout for controlling different pages and functions. In fact, the designer realized that it was simple and cost-effective to use templates that only require insertion of information in the fields. The third phase was the logical data design, which aimed to provide appropriate data for users. The designer presented information in various chunks and parts. This process only strived to ensure that customers got the necessary information they sought. Thus, the designer concentrated on developing a perfect ontology for data. The designer used XML tool in this process. During the site implementation process, the designer ensured that the database was maintainable, allow for modification, could not interfere with other functions, and fast enough for users. Overall, the logical data design remained useful to the programmer. The designer relied on a Query Builder in order to develop such a database with a logical design. The designer used Web Builder tool like WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) to develop different Web pages. WYSIWYG allowed the designer to customize the site due to its several features, scripts, and templates. The Adobe Dreamweaver supported several processes, improved the workflow, and reduced time during the coding process. It had library code snippets server debug, and other coding tools. The designer could view the CSS as a whole unit. This made the process simple by allowing the user designer to see the style, identify areas for changes, and edit the style without changing the code. The designer generated important features like object chunks, structure of the site, navigation systems, logical data system, design templates, page model, images, text are as, logo areas, and typo styles. Testing Functionality Testing The designer tested for links of Web pages, connections, cookies, links for information submission and receiving. It also involved testing for â€Å"internal links, e-mail links, orphan pages, broken links, and links going to the same page† (Ash 23). Testing also covers all pages. Forms validate all lists in every field and default values. The designer also tested for cookies and HTML/CSS. Users could scroll the site without difficulties. Database testing This tested for consistency of information in the site, query results, retrieval, and updates. Usability Testing This involved testing for the ease of navigation, usage, clear instructions, and availability of the Main menu. There were no spelling errors. Color and font were visible. All contents were within the frame. All images had appropriate size. Interface Testing The designer tested for interface elements like â€Å"Web server and database server† (A sh 23). The designer ensured that all interface features interacted properly. There was a logical model for handling errors from application servers. The designer also tested for effects of interruption during transactions. The system always requested the user to cancel and confirm the process. Compatibility Testing This involved testing with different browsers, the mobile version, and printing options due different configuration. The Web site must match these standards. The designer used cross browser to ensure compatibility with the major browsers. AJAX required testing for user interface functionality, security testing, and other validation processes. The designer tested the Web site on various browsers like Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, and Opera browser among others. OS compatibility The designer tested for the Web site â€Å"functionality and compatibility with the various Operating Systems† (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). Not all graphic designs and interfaces may be compatible with the current Operating Systems. The designer tested OS like Windows, Solaris, and Linux among others. Mobile browsing The new age of technology has shifted to mobile devices, and mobile devices have increased Internet accessibility. Therefore, the designer tested for the Web site on a mobile browser for compatibility (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). Printing options Customers who wish to print their transaction details should not experience challenges. The designer tested for suitability of fonts, graphics, and page alignment for proper printing. Performance testing The Web site should bear the greatest load and stress. The designer tested for loading and connection speed. The system could handle several requests, large data, and connection to database and upload to certain pages. Stress testing The designer tested if the system could â€Å"handle large loads beyond its specified limits† (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). The areas of focus included log in, registration pages, and other input fields. The crash report was significant for future improvements. The designer also tested for stress functionality on various browsers, Oss, hardware, and, memory capacities, and software. Security Testing Finally, the designer tested for the Web site security features. The system had the ability to record all transactions, error messages, and unauthorized attempts of logins. Releasing The Web site was ready for a release after testing. The designer observed whether the Web site met users’ expectations. Users had the option of proving feedback about the overall site experience. The process also involved measures of goals and any possible correction required for the Web site functionality and usability. The Web site shall require constant maintenance in terms of improving current features, technology improvement, and changes in the visual features. In addition, the site shall require regular update of available books. Works Cited Ambler , Scott. User Interface Design Tips, Techniques, and Principles. 2012. Web. Ash, Lydia. The Web Testing Companion: The Insider’s Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests. New York: Wiley, 2003. Print. Booch, Grady, James Rumbaugh and Ivar Jacobson. The Unified Modeling Language User Guide, 2nd ed. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2005. Print. Eccher, Clint. Professional Web Design: Techniques and Templates, 4th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print. Nguyen, Hung, Robert Johnson and Michael Hackett. Testing Applications on the Web: Test Planning for Mobile and Internet-Based Systems, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2003. Print. This assessment on Web Design for Selling Self-Published Books was written and submitted by user Kiara Prince to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Gay Rights Essays - Same-sex Sexuality, Sexual Orientation

Gay Rights Essays - Same-sex Sexuality, Sexual Orientation Gay Rights Homosexuals: Fight for Rights Gay rights is a touchy subject especially in the united states. It is the fight for homosexuals to be treated as everyone else, the fight to be given what they desearve, the fight to live without torment, the fight for peace. This nation has the state of mind that how the ideal person lives, is normal, and anyone not living that way is wrong. The people of this country pick on and torment people because they are different or not like them. Why do thay do thiswho knows. John Catlin M. D. states that Many indeviduals that bully other people due to sexual origin, usually are battling sexual insecurities themselves (1) In New York there was a poll taken from the people, on the thoughts of gay rights. Many of them were displeased at the fact that homosexuals were discriminated against, and didnt have the same rights as heterosexuals. In November of 1989, Time magazine took a poll on what the people thought about legal benefits that homosexuals should receive. 62% came back saying that hom osexuals should be permitted to receive medical, and life insurance benefits from their life long partner. (101) And yet nothing has come of that yet. Homosexuals deserve equal treatment legally and socially. Throughout the world homosexual people have been discriminated against for all types of different reasons and basically all of them are unjust. Homosexualality is not caused by abuse at a young age, it is not curable, it is not a disease or disorder and it is defiantly NOT learnt. For decades the incidence of homosexuality in the general population has been estimated to be approximately ten percent. Organisations opposed to gay rights have consistently claimed the number to be much lower. Despite the controversy, ten percent still remains the most widely accepted estimate (Issacson, 101) so why do people think of homosexuals as being strange or weird. There are many people around the world who are discriminating against homosexuals without even knowing it. One of these is when someone calls someone else a bad name such as a Pofter or Fagot, not really meaning it but saying it just as a hurtful name just because everyone else says it. This saying is not meant but it degrades every hom osexual in the world every time some uses those words. There is another myth about homosexuals and is that a lot of people think that they are obsessed with sex. Contrary to popular belief, gay men and lesbians are no more inclined to be consumed with sexual thoughts or feelings than heterosexual counterparts, nor are they attracted to everyone of the same sex they meet. (Weinberg, 109) The lives of homosexuals, like the lives of heterosexuals are about much more than sex, but it's easy to see why people believe these common myths that have been expressed by a lot of people. Many people do not even realise that they know someone who is gay because of the amount of gays that are in the community. Unfortunately, these misguided heterosexuals only knowledge of homosexuality comes from the media or anti-gay organisations that are trying to destroy the gay community, neither of which is likely to show the average gay person or couple in real life. The media is in the business of selling news, and radical behaviour of any kind sells, big time. Anti-gay organisations are in the business of making gay people appear as evil as possible. They will obviously focus their attention on the most radical behaviour that can be found within the gay community. Why do gay people flaunt their sexuality? Why don't they just keep it private? Well the majority of gay people don't flaunt their sexuality. As a matter of fact, many go to great lengths to hide their sexual preference. There is a double standard in our society. What some people consider to be flaunting by homosexuals is usually regarded as everyday behaviour for heterosexuals. This is a perfect example : A heterosexual couple walking hand in hand is perceived as normal. Very few would consider their behaviour to be inappropriate or rude, if they even noticed it at all. On the other hand, a lesbian

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Company Culture and Making the Investment Decisions Assignment

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